Relative Clauses
What are relative clauses?
A relative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or a noun phrase.
Example:
The man who is smoking is the murdererThe noun the man is modified by the relative clause who is smoking.
Relative clauses give essential information to define or identify the person or thing we are talking about.
How to use relative clauses
They are used to provide extra information. This information can either:
Relative clauses can be introduced by:
- define something (defining clause),
Example:
The girl who is standing there is a world champion in karate.- or provide unnecessary, but interesting information (non-defining clause).
Example:
Michael Jackson, who was a famous singer, died of an overdose.
- A relative pronoun: who, whom, which, that, whose.
Example: "The man who is standing there is a famous writer."- A relative adverb: where, why and when.
Example: " The restaurant where I have dinner is nice."- None of them.
Example: "The man I met is extremely wealthy"
Relative Pronouns
who - subject or object pronoun for people
They caught the lady who killed her baby.which - subject or object pronoun
I read the book which is on the table.I visited the town which you told me about.which - referring to a whole sentence
They were unsuccessful which is disappointing.whom - used for object pronoun for people, especially in non-restrictive relative clauses (in restrictive relative clauses use who)
The boy whom you told me about got the best grades in mathematics.that - subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in restrictive relative clauses (who or which are also possible)
I like the vase that is over there.
Relative adverbs
where - referring to a place
The restaurant where I usually have dinner is nice.when - referring to a time
There are times when I feel so lonely.why - referring to a reason
This is why she refused the offer.
Subject Pronoun or Object Pronoun?
You can distinguish subject and object pronouns as follows:
- If the relative pronoun is not followed by a noun or pronoun, it is a subject pronoun. Subject relative pronouns can never be omitted (dropped.)
Example:
The apple which is lying on the table is sweet.
The teacher who lives next door is nice.- If the relative pronoun is followed by a noun or pronoun, the relative pronoun is an object pronoun. Object relative pronounscan be omitted (dropped) in restrictive (defining) relative clauses.
Example:
The film (which) we watched yesterday was fantastic.
The writer (who/whom) we met last weekend is very famous.
Restrictive Relative Clauses
1. Restrictive (identifying or defining) relative clauses give detailed necessary information. They are not put between commas.
I know the man who is standing there2. These clauses are often used in definitions.
A novelist is someone who writes novels.3. Object pronouns in these clauses can be omitted (dropped.)
Example:
The boy (who/whom) we met yesterday is from New York.
Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses
Non- restrictive (non-identifying or non- defining) relative clauses give interesting additional information which is not necessary to the meaning of the sentence. These clauses are put between commas.
Example:Note:
Martin Luther king, who was known for his fight for the civil rights, was assassinated in 1968.
In non restrictive relative clauses:
1. who/which may not be replaced with that.
Example:2. Object relative pronouns cannot be dropped.
Jim, who we met yesterday, is very nice.
NOTJim, that we met yesterday, is very nice.
Example:
Jim, who we met yesterday, is very nice.
NOTJim,we met yesterday, is very nice.
Concessive clause - Although, even though...
Concessive clause
A concessive clause is a clause which begins with "although" or "even though" and which expresses an idea that suggests the opposite of the main part of the sentence.The sentence "Although he's quiet, he's not shy" begins with a concessive clause- "Although he's quiet " which has an opposite meaning of - "he's not shy" which is the main part of the sentence.NOTE: " In spite of" , " despite" have similar meaning to "although" or "even though". BUT they don't introduce clauses. They have different syntax. They are followed by nouns or gerunds (verb+ing.) They don't introduce a clause (subject + verb.)
Although, even though:
Study these examples:
"He had enough money."
" He refused to buy a new car."
The above two statements can be combined as follows :
Although
Even though |
he had enough money,
|
he refused to buy a new car
|
OR
He refused to buy a new car
|
although
even though |
he had enough money.
|
Structure:
"Although", and "even though" introduce concessive clauses.
Although /even though
|
subject
|
verb
|
Examples:
Although it was raining, he walked to the station.
Even though she is very old, she runs fast.
Despite / in spite of:
Despite and in spite of do not introduce a concessive clause. They are rather followed by a noun or a verb+ing form.
Study this example:
"He had enough money."
"He refused to buy a new car."
The above two statements can be combined as follows :
Despite
In spite of |
all his money,
|
he refused to buy a new car.
|
having enough money,
|
OR
He refused to buy a new car
|
despite
in spite of |
all his money.
|
having enough money.
|
Structure
Despite / in spite of
|
+ a noun,
|
+ verb + ing.
|
Examples:
Despite /in spite of the rain, he walked to the station.
Despite /in spite of being tired, he walked to the station.
Remember:
1. Although, even though + subject + verb (Concessive clause)3. In spite of, despite + noun or verb+ing (Not a concessive clause)2. There are structural similarities between:
- "in spite of", "despite" and "although", "even though"
- "because of", "due to", "owing to", "thanks to" and "because", "since ,"as", "for". (Expressing cause and effect)
Appositive
What is an appositive?
An appositive is a noun or a noun phrase placed next to another word to define or modify it. For example, in the phrase "my friendLeila," the noun "Leila" is an appositive.
Restrictive versus non-restrictive
An appositive can either be restrictive, or non-restrictive.
1. Non-restrictive appositives are not crucial to the meaning of the sentence. For example, in "Alan, the chief executive of the project, has just called for a meeting ", "the chief executive of the project" doesn't narrow down the first element "Alan". It rather provides additional information about it. Non-restrictive appositives are put between commas.
2. In a restrictive appositive, the second element limits or clarifies a word in some crucial way. For example, in the phrase "my friend Leila writes good poems ", the name " Leila" tells us which friend the speaker is talking about and is thus restrictive. Restrictive appositives don't need to be set off with a pair of commas.
Examples of appositives
- Mexico City, the biggest city in the world, has many interesting archaeological sites.
- Denver, the capital of Colorado, is beautiful.
- My friend bill is very rich.
In spite of
Despite |
+ noun
|
Because of
Due to owing to Thanks to | |
Although
Even though |
+ verb
|
Because
Since For As |
Either / or versus neither / nor
Either/or and neither/nor
1.Either / or - used in a sentence in the affirmative sense when referring to a choice between two possibilities
We can either eat now or after the show - it's up to you.2. Neither / nor - used in a sentence in the negative sense when you want to say that two or more things are not true
Neither my mother nor my father went to university.
Singular or plural
When using either/or and neither/nor, note the following rules:
1. If both elements are singular, then the verb is singular too.
2. However, if one of the elements is plural, then use a plural verb.
- Either the father or the mother has to attend the meeting. (father and mother are singular; so the verb has is singular too)
- Neither Leila nor Nancy is going to write the report. (Leila and Nancy are singular; so the verb is is singular too)
- Either Sue or the girls are going to prepare dinner tonight. (the girls is plural; so the verb are is plural too)
- Neither the teacher nor the students were in the classroom this morning. (the students is plural; so the verbwere is plural too)
Like and As
What is the difference between like and as?
Like and as are confusing for many English learners. In this section, we will try to show how they are used in specific examples.
As - preposition / conjunction
As may function as a preposition and is used when we talk about a job or function:
Examples:
As may also be used as a conjunction meaning in the same way that...
- I worked as a taxi driver.
- He was nominated as a Secretary of State.
- He used the carpet as a decoration in his office.
- The wind can be used as a source of energy.
Examples:
- She behaved exactly as her mother told her.
- When in Rome do as the Romans do.
Like - preposition / conjunction
Like may be used as preposition meaning similar to. It is used to compare things.
Like is often used in place of the subordinating conjunction as, or as if.
- He has been working like a dog.
- I am like my mother. I hate waiting.
- He looks like his father.
Examples:
- They look like they have been having fun. = They look as if they have been having fun.
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